Marcus Aurelius, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
War with Parthia (161–166)
On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.
One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.
Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.
The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.
Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates.
After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred.
The campaign had lasted only three days.
There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.
Marcus was unprepared.
Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus' twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.
More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.
Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier.
P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.
Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany, II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis.
The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.
M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor.
His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties, and as a patrician, he lacked military experience.
Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.
Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria.
He was too anxious to relax.
Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.
Fronto replied: 'What?'
'Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'
He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.
Marcus could not take Fronto's advice.
'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.
Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: 'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!'
He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty!'
'Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'
Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references.
In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War).
There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.
Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person.
He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.
Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.
Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left.
Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.
Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.
Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle, saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through', and enjoyed the company of actors.
Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.
In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla.
Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius' mistress Panthea.
Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.
Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius' uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'.
Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.
Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.
He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.
He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.
The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.
At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.
When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.
Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms.
In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.
A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus.
He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.
Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.
In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.
In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.
Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.
Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.
In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia.
Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.
The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured.
The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.
A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.
By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left.
Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame.
The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders.
The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation.
Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.
Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.
Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.
Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media.
Lucius took the title 'Medicus', and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature.
Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.
On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marcus Aurelius, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
War with Germanic tribes (166–180)
During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany.
He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).
The condition on the northern frontier looked grave.
A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil.
There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.
Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family.
Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus.
Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius.
Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch.
Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son.
The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators.
The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.
Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube.
This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east.
A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.
Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.
Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.
The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece.
After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders.
Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself.
This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.
Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city.
For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
War with Germanic tribes (166–180)
During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany.
He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).
The condition on the northern frontier looked grave.
A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil.
There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.
Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family.
Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus.
Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius.
Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch.
Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son.
The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators.
The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.
Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube.
This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east.
A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.
Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.
Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.
The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece.
After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders.
Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself.
This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.
Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city.
For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marcus Aurelius, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Legal and administrative work
Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes, but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.
He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation.
Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law' and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.
He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).
Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.
In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.
In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz).
However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Legal and administrative work
Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes, but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.
He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation.
Professional jurists called him 'an emperor most skilled in the law' and 'a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor'.
He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).
Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.
In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.
In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz).
However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marcus Aurelius, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague
A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus).
In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam).
This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).
Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.
The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius' campaign against the Parthians.
It may have continued into the reign of Commodus.
Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166, mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.
It is believed that the plague was smallpox.
In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.
Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade.
However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'.
According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague
A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus).
In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam).
This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).
Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.
The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius' campaign against the Parthians.
It may have continued into the reign of Commodus.
Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166, mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms.
It is believed that the plague was smallpox.
In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.
Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade.
However, it was also a 'harbinger of something much more ominous'.
According to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marcus Aurelius, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Legacy and reputation
Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain his after death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.
Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Melito also gave him the title.
The last named went so far as to call him 'more philanthropic and philosophic' than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.
'Alone of the emperors,' wrote the historian Herodian, 'he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life'.
Iain King concludes that Marcus' legacy is tragic, because the emperor's 'Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death'.
Attitude towards Christians
In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians.
In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.
The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus.
The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.
The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.,) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Aurelius believed Christian-prayer had saved his army from thirst when 'water poured from heaven,' after which, 'immediately we recognized the presence of God.'
Aurelius goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Emperor
Legacy and reputation
Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain his after death; both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'.
Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Melito also gave him the title.
The last named went so far as to call him 'more philanthropic and philosophic' than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.
'Alone of the emperors,' wrote the historian Herodian, 'he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life'.
Iain King concludes that Marcus' legacy is tragic, because the emperor's 'Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death'.
Attitude towards Christians
In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians.
In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.
The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus.
The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.
The early Christian apologist, Justin Martyr includes within his First Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.,) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Aurelius believed Christian-prayer had saved his army from thirst when 'water poured from heaven,' after which, 'immediately we recognized the presence of God.'
Aurelius goes on to request the senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.
TO BE CONTINUED …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marcus Aurelius, concluded ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Writings
While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement.
The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown.
'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later.
He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality.
Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty.
According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.
It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.
It is not known how widely Marcus' writings were circulated after his death.
There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.
It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus' writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself).
It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.
The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Writings
While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement.
The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown.
'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later.
He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality.
Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty.
According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.
It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.
It is not known how widely Marcus' writings were circulated after his death.
There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.
It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus' writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself).
It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.
The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
The Ancient History Encyclopedia
Massilia
by Donald L. Wasson
published on 06 March 2013
Along the north-western coast of the Mediterranean Sea between Spain and Italy lies the ancient city of Massilia (modern Marseilles).
Originally founded in 600 BCE by Ionian Greeks from Phocaea, the city would one day challenge the might of Carthage (defeating them in both the 5th and 6th centuries BCE) and dominate the region, establishing a number of colonies in southern Gaul during the 3rd and 4th centuries BCE.
There is also some evidence that sailors from Massilia even travelled beyond the Pillars of Hercules through the Strait of Gibraltar onto the western coast of Africa.
According to most sources, the city was settled on land obtained from the Ligurian Segobriges.
Protis, a Greek from Phocaea, had been searching for new trading outposts when he happened upon the cove at Lacydon.
This is where history and legend become one.
The king of the Segobridges, Nannus, invited the young Greek to a banquet where his daughter, Gyptis, was to choose a spouse among a number of possible suitors.
To the surprise of everyone (especially Protis) she deserted the favoured Gauls and presented the ceremonial cup to Protis.
Sources vary on whether the cup contained water or wine.
As a wedding gift, the king gave the newlyweds land that would become Massilia.
The city, located on three hills and overlooking the harbour, would become one of the first ports in Western Europe and a centre of maritime trade.
The Greeks would also have a profound effect on the entire region in other ways.
According to ancient sources, they taught the locals the “rule of law,” how to cultivate the land, and, most of all, “civility.”
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Massilia
by Donald L. Wasson
published on 06 March 2013
Along the north-western coast of the Mediterranean Sea between Spain and Italy lies the ancient city of Massilia (modern Marseilles).
Originally founded in 600 BCE by Ionian Greeks from Phocaea, the city would one day challenge the might of Carthage (defeating them in both the 5th and 6th centuries BCE) and dominate the region, establishing a number of colonies in southern Gaul during the 3rd and 4th centuries BCE.
There is also some evidence that sailors from Massilia even travelled beyond the Pillars of Hercules through the Strait of Gibraltar onto the western coast of Africa.
According to most sources, the city was settled on land obtained from the Ligurian Segobriges.
Protis, a Greek from Phocaea, had been searching for new trading outposts when he happened upon the cove at Lacydon.
This is where history and legend become one.
The king of the Segobridges, Nannus, invited the young Greek to a banquet where his daughter, Gyptis, was to choose a spouse among a number of possible suitors.
To the surprise of everyone (especially Protis) she deserted the favoured Gauls and presented the ceremonial cup to Protis.
Sources vary on whether the cup contained water or wine.
As a wedding gift, the king gave the newlyweds land that would become Massilia.
The city, located on three hills and overlooking the harbour, would become one of the first ports in Western Europe and a centre of maritime trade.
The Greeks would also have a profound effect on the entire region in other ways.
According to ancient sources, they taught the locals the “rule of law,” how to cultivate the land, and, most of all, “civility.”
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
The Ancient History Encyclopedia
Massilia, concluded ...
by Donald L. Wasson
published on 06 March 2013
The story of Protis and the founding of Massilia would, however, take a dark twist.
After the king’s death, his son and heir came to consider the city as a threat and needed to be silenced.
The plan was to sneak into the city at night, killing its inhabitants; however, the plot was spoiled when a relative of the king (who had fallen in love with a young Greek) divulged the plan.
The participating Ligurians, the young king, and seven thousand of his followers were all killed.
Due to its strategic location, the city would grow rapidly, enjoying a second wave of emigration in 525 BCE after the fall of Phocaea.
The presence of Greek culture - especially its architecture and art - at Massilia had a lasting effect from Gaul in the northwest and Spain to the far west; this influence became more evident with the arrival of Greek wine and olives as agricultural products.
Although the city remained Greek in nature - complete with a theatre, agora, temples, and docks - its location kept it from participating in any of the Greek wars in the homeland.
Instead, they found an ally in their neighbour Rome.
While maintaining its independence, the city aided Rome (through the provision of ships) during the Second Punic War against Carthage (218 -202 BCE).
This loyalty to Rome would soon reap benefits.
In 125 BCE when the Sulluvii from southern Gaul threatened the safety of Massilia, the city successfully appealed to Rome for assistance.
Afterwards, the city served as a link between Gaul and their desire for Roman goods (particularly wine) and Rome’s need for resources and slaves.
Although the city continued to have ties to the Republic, it was still able to maintain its oligarchic form of government, complete with an assembly of six hundred who elected fifteen magistrates, three of whom had executive power - this independence would, though, soon come to abrupt end.
In 49 BCE the city made the mistake of supporting Pompey in his battle against Julius Caesar.
As Caesar marched to Spain, the people of Massilia closed the city gates to him.
Leaving three legions to continue an assault upon the city, Caesar continued on to Spain.
After a constant barrage with siege towers, siege ramps and battering ram, the city soon surrendered.
Although Caesar chose to be merciful, the city still suffered, losing much of its surrounding territory and, most of all, its independence, becoming a member (not by choice) of the Republic.
In the latter stages of the Empire, the city’s importance as a commercial centre declined, although maintaining a reputation for Greek culture and learning.
Later, with the rise of Christianity, Massilia became a monastic centre and a haven for refugees fleeing barbarians to the north.
Like other Roman colonies and cities, it fell to both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths in the mid-fifth century CE, and ultimately to the Franks.
Donald L. Wasson
Donald has taught Ancient, Medieval and U.S. History at Lincoln College (Normal, Illinois)and has always been and will always be a student of history, ever since learning about Alexander the Great. He is eager to pass knowledge on to his students.
https://www.ancient.eu/massilia/
Massilia, concluded ...
by Donald L. Wasson
published on 06 March 2013
The story of Protis and the founding of Massilia would, however, take a dark twist.
After the king’s death, his son and heir came to consider the city as a threat and needed to be silenced.
The plan was to sneak into the city at night, killing its inhabitants; however, the plot was spoiled when a relative of the king (who had fallen in love with a young Greek) divulged the plan.
The participating Ligurians, the young king, and seven thousand of his followers were all killed.
Due to its strategic location, the city would grow rapidly, enjoying a second wave of emigration in 525 BCE after the fall of Phocaea.
The presence of Greek culture - especially its architecture and art - at Massilia had a lasting effect from Gaul in the northwest and Spain to the far west; this influence became more evident with the arrival of Greek wine and olives as agricultural products.
Although the city remained Greek in nature - complete with a theatre, agora, temples, and docks - its location kept it from participating in any of the Greek wars in the homeland.
Instead, they found an ally in their neighbour Rome.
While maintaining its independence, the city aided Rome (through the provision of ships) during the Second Punic War against Carthage (218 -202 BCE).
This loyalty to Rome would soon reap benefits.
In 125 BCE when the Sulluvii from southern Gaul threatened the safety of Massilia, the city successfully appealed to Rome for assistance.
Afterwards, the city served as a link between Gaul and their desire for Roman goods (particularly wine) and Rome’s need for resources and slaves.
Although the city continued to have ties to the Republic, it was still able to maintain its oligarchic form of government, complete with an assembly of six hundred who elected fifteen magistrates, three of whom had executive power - this independence would, though, soon come to abrupt end.
In 49 BCE the city made the mistake of supporting Pompey in his battle against Julius Caesar.
As Caesar marched to Spain, the people of Massilia closed the city gates to him.
Leaving three legions to continue an assault upon the city, Caesar continued on to Spain.
After a constant barrage with siege towers, siege ramps and battering ram, the city soon surrendered.
Although Caesar chose to be merciful, the city still suffered, losing much of its surrounding territory and, most of all, its independence, becoming a member (not by choice) of the Republic.
In the latter stages of the Empire, the city’s importance as a commercial centre declined, although maintaining a reputation for Greek culture and learning.
Later, with the rise of Christianity, Massilia became a monastic centre and a haven for refugees fleeing barbarians to the north.
Like other Roman colonies and cities, it fell to both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths in the mid-fifth century CE, and ultimately to the Franks.
Donald L. Wasson
Donald has taught Ancient, Medieval and U.S. History at Lincoln College (Normal, Illinois)and has always been and will always be a student of history, ever since learning about Alexander the Great. He is eager to pass knowledge on to his students.
https://www.ancient.eu/massilia/
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Marseille
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Marseille was originally founded circa 600 BC as the Greek colony of Massalia and populated by settlers from Phocaea (modern Foça, Turkey).
It became the preeminent Greek polis in the Hellenized region of southern Gaul.
The city-state sided with the Roman Republic against Carthage during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), retaining its independence and commercial empire throughout the western Mediterranean even as Rome expanded into Western Europe and North Africa.
However, the city lost its independence following the Roman Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, during Caesar's Civil War, in which Massalia sided with the exiled faction at war with Julius Caesar.
Marseille continued to prosper as a Roman city, becoming an early center of Christianity during the Western Roman Empire.
The city maintained its position as a premier maritime trading hub even after its capture by the Visigoths in the 5th century AD, although the city went into decline following the sack of 739 AD by the forces of Charles Martel.
It became part of the County of Provence during the 10th century, although its renewed prosperity was curtailed by the Black Death of the 14th century and sack of the city by the Crown of Aragon in 1423.
The city's fortunes rebounded with the ambitious building projects of René of Anjou, Count of Provence, who strengthened the city's fortifications during the mid-15th century.
During the 16th century the city hosted a naval fleet with the combined forces of the Franco-Ottoman alliance, which threatened the ports and navies of Genoa and the Holy Roman Empire.
Marseille lost a significant portion of its population during the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720, but the population had recovered by mid-century.
In 1792 the city became a focal point of the French Revolution and was the birthplace of France's national anthem, La Marseillaise.
The Industrial Revolution and establishment of the French Empire during the 19th century allowed for further expansion of the city, although it was occupied by the German Wehrmacht in November 1942 and subsequently heavily damaged during World War II.
The city has since become a major center for immigrant communities from former French colonies, such as French Algeria.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille#History
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Marseille was originally founded circa 600 BC as the Greek colony of Massalia and populated by settlers from Phocaea (modern Foça, Turkey).
It became the preeminent Greek polis in the Hellenized region of southern Gaul.
The city-state sided with the Roman Republic against Carthage during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), retaining its independence and commercial empire throughout the western Mediterranean even as Rome expanded into Western Europe and North Africa.
However, the city lost its independence following the Roman Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, during Caesar's Civil War, in which Massalia sided with the exiled faction at war with Julius Caesar.
Marseille continued to prosper as a Roman city, becoming an early center of Christianity during the Western Roman Empire.
The city maintained its position as a premier maritime trading hub even after its capture by the Visigoths in the 5th century AD, although the city went into decline following the sack of 739 AD by the forces of Charles Martel.
It became part of the County of Provence during the 10th century, although its renewed prosperity was curtailed by the Black Death of the 14th century and sack of the city by the Crown of Aragon in 1423.
The city's fortunes rebounded with the ambitious building projects of René of Anjou, Count of Provence, who strengthened the city's fortifications during the mid-15th century.
During the 16th century the city hosted a naval fleet with the combined forces of the Franco-Ottoman alliance, which threatened the ports and navies of Genoa and the Holy Roman Empire.
Marseille lost a significant portion of its population during the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720, but the population had recovered by mid-century.
In 1792 the city became a focal point of the French Revolution and was the birthplace of France's national anthem, La Marseillaise.
The Industrial Revolution and establishment of the French Empire during the 19th century allowed for further expansion of the city, although it was occupied by the German Wehrmacht in November 1942 and subsequently heavily damaged during World War II.
The city has since become a major center for immigrant communities from former French colonies, such as French Algeria.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille#History
Re: MUSINGS ON THE SCHEME OF THINGS
Siege of Massilia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar's civil war, fought in 49 BC between forces loyal to the Optimates and a detachment of Caesar's army.
The siege was conducted by Gaius Trebonius, one of Caesar's senior legates, while the naval operations were in the capable hands of Decimus Brutus, Caesar's naval expert.
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus had become proconsul of Gaul and was sent to gain control of Massilia (modern Marseille) in order to oppose Caesar.
As Caesar marched to Hispania (en route to the Battle of Ilerda), the Massiliots closed their gates to him, having allied with Ahenobarbus and the Optimates.
Roused by their hostile actions, he commenced a siege against Massilia, leaving the newly raised 17th, 18th, and 19th legions to conduct the siege under the command of Gaius Trebonius.
He also placed Decimus Brutus in charge of his fleet there.
Caesar himself marched with his veteran legions to Hispania to fight the Pompeian generals Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius.
He would return to the siege of Massilia after defeating his opponents at the battle of Ilerda.
After the siege had begun, Ahenobarbus arrived in Massilia to defend it against the Caesarian forces.
In late June, Caesar's ships, although they were less skilfully built than those of the Massiliots and outnumbered, were victorious in the ensuing naval battle.
Gaius Trebonius conducted the siege using a variety of siege machines including siege towers, a siege-ramp, and a "testudo-ram".
Gaius Scribonius Curio, careless in adequately guarding the Sicilian Straits, allowed Lucius Nasidius to bring more ships to the aid of Ahenobarbus.
He fought a second naval battle with Decimus Brutus in early September, but withdrew defeated and sailed for Hispania.
Trebonius built a stationary tower, 30 ft. square and six stories in height, under the very walls of the city and in face of a rain of missiles from its engines.
The walls of the tower were of brickwork 5 ft. thick.
When the lowest storey was built it was covered with a solid fireproof roof which was not secured to the walls but rested upon them like a lid.
The eaves projected considerably, and from them screens were hung on all sides, covering all the walls.
By means of screws the whole canopy, roof and screens, was now raised to the height of one storey and the workmen proceeded to build the walls of that storey under its protection.
This process was repeated in the same manner until the full height of the tower was attained.
The Massiliots valiantly defended against the siege machines and works.
They threw down burning pitch and pine-shavings and the Caesarians undermined the foundations of their city walls.
At one point they seemed likely to surrender and declare a truce, but at night they cunningly destroyed the siege works in a gross violation of the treaty, according to Caesar's own account (Bellum Civile 2.14; alternatively, Dio 41.25.2 records that the Massiliots destroyed these works in response to a surprise attack by the Caesarian forces).
The city's inhabitants were then near surrender.
At the final surrender of Massilia, Caesar showed his usual leniency and Lucius Ahenobarbus escaped to Thessaly in the only vessel that was able to escape from the Populares.
Afterwards, Massilia was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome, along with some territories while most of its empire was confiscated by Julius Caesar.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Massilia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar's civil war, fought in 49 BC between forces loyal to the Optimates and a detachment of Caesar's army.
The siege was conducted by Gaius Trebonius, one of Caesar's senior legates, while the naval operations were in the capable hands of Decimus Brutus, Caesar's naval expert.
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus had become proconsul of Gaul and was sent to gain control of Massilia (modern Marseille) in order to oppose Caesar.
As Caesar marched to Hispania (en route to the Battle of Ilerda), the Massiliots closed their gates to him, having allied with Ahenobarbus and the Optimates.
Roused by their hostile actions, he commenced a siege against Massilia, leaving the newly raised 17th, 18th, and 19th legions to conduct the siege under the command of Gaius Trebonius.
He also placed Decimus Brutus in charge of his fleet there.
Caesar himself marched with his veteran legions to Hispania to fight the Pompeian generals Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius.
He would return to the siege of Massilia after defeating his opponents at the battle of Ilerda.
After the siege had begun, Ahenobarbus arrived in Massilia to defend it against the Caesarian forces.
In late June, Caesar's ships, although they were less skilfully built than those of the Massiliots and outnumbered, were victorious in the ensuing naval battle.
Gaius Trebonius conducted the siege using a variety of siege machines including siege towers, a siege-ramp, and a "testudo-ram".
Gaius Scribonius Curio, careless in adequately guarding the Sicilian Straits, allowed Lucius Nasidius to bring more ships to the aid of Ahenobarbus.
He fought a second naval battle with Decimus Brutus in early September, but withdrew defeated and sailed for Hispania.
Trebonius built a stationary tower, 30 ft. square and six stories in height, under the very walls of the city and in face of a rain of missiles from its engines.
The walls of the tower were of brickwork 5 ft. thick.
When the lowest storey was built it was covered with a solid fireproof roof which was not secured to the walls but rested upon them like a lid.
The eaves projected considerably, and from them screens were hung on all sides, covering all the walls.
By means of screws the whole canopy, roof and screens, was now raised to the height of one storey and the workmen proceeded to build the walls of that storey under its protection.
This process was repeated in the same manner until the full height of the tower was attained.
The Massiliots valiantly defended against the siege machines and works.
They threw down burning pitch and pine-shavings and the Caesarians undermined the foundations of their city walls.
At one point they seemed likely to surrender and declare a truce, but at night they cunningly destroyed the siege works in a gross violation of the treaty, according to Caesar's own account (Bellum Civile 2.14; alternatively, Dio 41.25.2 records that the Massiliots destroyed these works in response to a surprise attack by the Caesarian forces).
The city's inhabitants were then near surrender.
At the final surrender of Massilia, Caesar showed his usual leniency and Lucius Ahenobarbus escaped to Thessaly in the only vessel that was able to escape from the Populares.
Afterwards, Massilia was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome, along with some territories while most of its empire was confiscated by Julius Caesar.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Massilia