HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, continued ...
All these efforts show the active interest displayed by the founder and the officers of the school in the extension of the experimental system and the diffusion of scientific knowledge.
To extend still further the benefits of the institution Mr. Van Rensselaer, while in the House of Representatives, wrote from Washington the following letter to the president of the Institute.
It was dated December 31, 1827:
"Dear Sir: I take the liberty of suggesting to you and the trustees the propriety of offering the school (over which you preside with so much dignity and usefulness) to the Legislature, to educate teachers, as proposed by Gov. Clinton in his message at a former session of the Legislature — perhaps an amendment to the charter, extending the power of the trustees to change the location of the School, if they deem it necessary."
Nothing having come from this suggestion, he caused, in 1828, an invitation to be given to each county of the state to furnish a student, selected by the clerk of the county, for gratuitous instruction at Troy.
This invitation was accepted by nearly all the counties.
The students thus instructed were required to teach the experimental and demonstrative method in their own counties for a period of one year.
The authorities of the school seem also to have had, for those days, advanced ideas in regard to the education of women, for we find, as an addendum to a circular dated October 29, 1828, the following "Notice by A. Eaton, in his private capacity."
"At the urgent solicitations of several judicious friends, a lady, well qualified for the duty, will take charge of two experimental courses in chemistry and natural philosophy, in each year, for ladies: similar to the courses proposed for gentlemen in the annexed circular."
"They will be nine-week courses, at the same times and for the same charges."
"But no extemporaneous lectures will be required, excepting of those ladies who wish to prepare for giving instruction."
And in the minutes of the board there is a copy of a letter from Professor Eaton to the examiners, dated February 11, 1835, in which he requests them to give an informal examination to eight young ladies, who had been instructed for one quarter in practical mathematics, "so far as to be enabled to draw a fair comparison between the study of speculative geometry and algebra as generally practised in female seminaries and this mode of applying mathematics to the essential calculations of geography, astronomy, meteorology, necessary admeasurements, etc."
The examiners complied with his request and were highly gratified at the progress made by the class.
It may be explained that all examinations, in the early period of the school's history, were made by boards composed of from three to six qualified persons appointed by the trustees.
None of the members of these boards was connected with the school.
Professor Eaton's pronounced opinions upon the educational methods generally pursued in schools for young men have been illustrated in preceding pages.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
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HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, continued ...
These extended to the education of women as well, and the manner in which he expressed them was quite as forcible in the one case as in the other.
He remarks, at the end of a printed synopsis of the mathematical course for the year 1834-5: "The waste of time in many female schools, by the fashionable mummery of algebra, half learned and never applied, has caused many to ascribe the failure in mathematics to the perversion of female genius, when it is drawn from elegant literature, music, painting, etc., to the severe sciences."
"The true cause is to be found in parsimony, which excludes competent teachers, badly selected subjects and wretchedly compiled text-books."
"Our country is inundated with wild schemes of learning; while the speculating book-sellers are sending their harpie-like pedlars to rob our youth of the last fragments of common sense."
Although by the year 1829, after a trial of four years, it had been conclusively proved that the experimental and demonstrative method, as they called it, was successful as a system of instruction, the institution had not been self-supporting.
Its founder paid each year more than one half of its expenses.
This was becoming burdensome to him, and he signified to the trustees his desire to discontinue it, and especially his intention of discontinuing the gratuitous education of county students after October, 1829.
He did not in fact cease to contribute to the support of the school, but in consequence of this declaration it was "farmed out" in November, 1829, to Amos Eaton for a period of one year.
He was constituted the "Agent" of the trustees to transact all the pecuniary business of the institution, which, however, was to remain under the control of the board.
He relinquished all claim for compensation, and in consequence was authorized to receive and expend all moneys at his discretion and to retain all profits for his own benefit.
An inventory of the property was made and he was permitted to use it for purposes of instruction.
This arrangement was continued for one year only, as he terminated it in September, 1830, although he still acted as agent and retained his position as Senior Professor.
In spite of pecuniary embarrassments, improvements were continually being made both in the instruction and the equipment of the laboratories.
The prospectus for the eighth annual course shows that in 1831-2 the year had been divided into seventeen sub-terms of three weeks each, of which, however, three, called "reading terms", might be used either to visit friends or for a course of reading in the library.
The fifteenth and sixteenth sub-terms were occupied in the travelling tours to which reference has been made.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, continued ...
These extended to the education of women as well, and the manner in which he expressed them was quite as forcible in the one case as in the other.
He remarks, at the end of a printed synopsis of the mathematical course for the year 1834-5: "The waste of time in many female schools, by the fashionable mummery of algebra, half learned and never applied, has caused many to ascribe the failure in mathematics to the perversion of female genius, when it is drawn from elegant literature, music, painting, etc., to the severe sciences."
"The true cause is to be found in parsimony, which excludes competent teachers, badly selected subjects and wretchedly compiled text-books."
"Our country is inundated with wild schemes of learning; while the speculating book-sellers are sending their harpie-like pedlars to rob our youth of the last fragments of common sense."
Although by the year 1829, after a trial of four years, it had been conclusively proved that the experimental and demonstrative method, as they called it, was successful as a system of instruction, the institution had not been self-supporting.
Its founder paid each year more than one half of its expenses.
This was becoming burdensome to him, and he signified to the trustees his desire to discontinue it, and especially his intention of discontinuing the gratuitous education of county students after October, 1829.
He did not in fact cease to contribute to the support of the school, but in consequence of this declaration it was "farmed out" in November, 1829, to Amos Eaton for a period of one year.
He was constituted the "Agent" of the trustees to transact all the pecuniary business of the institution, which, however, was to remain under the control of the board.
He relinquished all claim for compensation, and in consequence was authorized to receive and expend all moneys at his discretion and to retain all profits for his own benefit.
An inventory of the property was made and he was permitted to use it for purposes of instruction.
This arrangement was continued for one year only, as he terminated it in September, 1830, although he still acted as agent and retained his position as Senior Professor.
In spite of pecuniary embarrassments, improvements were continually being made both in the instruction and the equipment of the laboratories.
The prospectus for the eighth annual course shows that in 1831-2 the year had been divided into seventeen sub-terms of three weeks each, of which, however, three, called "reading terms", might be used either to visit friends or for a course of reading in the library.
The fifteenth and sixteenth sub-terms were occupied in the travelling tours to which reference has been made.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
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HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, continued ...
During the morning exercises of the year each student had to give one hundred and eighty extemporaneous lectures, upon which he was closely criticised.
These lectures were illustrated by about twelve hundred experiments performed by himself, and by "suits" of minerals, plants and animals.
At this time the equipment included a reading room, a natural history room, a philosophy room and three laboratories.
Considerable additions had been made to the apparatus as described in the circulars of 1826.
The philosophy room now contained an air-pump, a force-pump, barometer, thermometers, pluviometer, solar microscope, megascope, standing microscope, magic lantern, telescope, lenses, convex and concave mirrors, prisms, electrical-machine, galvanic battery, electromagnetic instrument, magnets, sextant, theodolite, compass and chain, mechanical powers, hydrostatic bellows, hydrostatic and hydraulic cylinders and tubes, hydrometers and glass pumps.
The laboratories were furnished with the necessary forges, furnaces, bellows, lead-pots, Argand lamps, common lamps, iron retorts or gun-barrels for gases, anvils, anvil hammers, cisterns, pipes for conducting gases from the barrels, gas-pistol, iron stand, iron mortar and mercurial bath.
In the meantime the Rev. Samuel Blatchford, after earnest and successful labor in behalf of the school, died March 27, 1828, and was succeeded by the Rev. John Chester, a clergyman of Albany, who was appointed June 25, 1828.
His term was, however, a short one, as he was compelled, on account of ill health, to resign in about six months.
He was succeeded by the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, appointed September 2, 1829, who was at the same time president of Union College.
During the first seven years of its existence the school had been situated at the corner of Middleburgh and River streets, in the building formerly occupied by the Farmers' Bank, and known, at the time of its establishment, as the Old Bank Place.
Partly because it had not yet become self-supporting and partly because it was, in some respects, not conveniently situated, it was determined to obtain authority from the legislature to change its location if satisfactory arrangements could be made.
An act was consequently passed April 26, 1832, which gave the trustees power, after October 23, 1832, if the patron consented, to remove to the site of the Greenbush and Schodack Academy, in the town of Greenbush, in Rensselaer county, and to unite with this academy if its trustees consented.
In this case the united institution was to be called the Rensselaer Institute.
If, however, the patron or the trustees of the academy objected, the trustees of Rensselaer School were given authority to remove the institution, after the consent of Stephen Van Rensselaer had been given, to any part of Rensselaer county and to continue as an experimental and classical school under the name of the Rensselaer Institute.
The inquiries and negotiations made, in relation to the removal to Greenbush, were not satisfactory, as may be seen from the following letter written by the patron to the Rev. Dr. Nott and read at a meeting of the board of trustees held November i8, 1833:
"Albany, November 18, 1833."
"To the President and Trustees of the Rensselaer School:"
"Gentlemen: Sufficient provision for the support of said school not being offered to its location at Greenbush, according to the first section of the amendment of April 26, 1832, I feel bound in duty to object to its removal to Greenbush."
"But under present circumstances I cheerfully consent to a removal to the Van der Heyden mansion, or to any other suitable building near the central part of said city of Troy."
"Respectfully your humble servant,"
"S. V. Rensselaer."
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, continued ...
During the morning exercises of the year each student had to give one hundred and eighty extemporaneous lectures, upon which he was closely criticised.
These lectures were illustrated by about twelve hundred experiments performed by himself, and by "suits" of minerals, plants and animals.
At this time the equipment included a reading room, a natural history room, a philosophy room and three laboratories.
Considerable additions had been made to the apparatus as described in the circulars of 1826.
The philosophy room now contained an air-pump, a force-pump, barometer, thermometers, pluviometer, solar microscope, megascope, standing microscope, magic lantern, telescope, lenses, convex and concave mirrors, prisms, electrical-machine, galvanic battery, electromagnetic instrument, magnets, sextant, theodolite, compass and chain, mechanical powers, hydrostatic bellows, hydrostatic and hydraulic cylinders and tubes, hydrometers and glass pumps.
The laboratories were furnished with the necessary forges, furnaces, bellows, lead-pots, Argand lamps, common lamps, iron retorts or gun-barrels for gases, anvils, anvil hammers, cisterns, pipes for conducting gases from the barrels, gas-pistol, iron stand, iron mortar and mercurial bath.
In the meantime the Rev. Samuel Blatchford, after earnest and successful labor in behalf of the school, died March 27, 1828, and was succeeded by the Rev. John Chester, a clergyman of Albany, who was appointed June 25, 1828.
His term was, however, a short one, as he was compelled, on account of ill health, to resign in about six months.
He was succeeded by the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, appointed September 2, 1829, who was at the same time president of Union College.
During the first seven years of its existence the school had been situated at the corner of Middleburgh and River streets, in the building formerly occupied by the Farmers' Bank, and known, at the time of its establishment, as the Old Bank Place.
Partly because it had not yet become self-supporting and partly because it was, in some respects, not conveniently situated, it was determined to obtain authority from the legislature to change its location if satisfactory arrangements could be made.
An act was consequently passed April 26, 1832, which gave the trustees power, after October 23, 1832, if the patron consented, to remove to the site of the Greenbush and Schodack Academy, in the town of Greenbush, in Rensselaer county, and to unite with this academy if its trustees consented.
In this case the united institution was to be called the Rensselaer Institute.
If, however, the patron or the trustees of the academy objected, the trustees of Rensselaer School were given authority to remove the institution, after the consent of Stephen Van Rensselaer had been given, to any part of Rensselaer county and to continue as an experimental and classical school under the name of the Rensselaer Institute.
The inquiries and negotiations made, in relation to the removal to Greenbush, were not satisfactory, as may be seen from the following letter written by the patron to the Rev. Dr. Nott and read at a meeting of the board of trustees held November i8, 1833:
"Albany, November 18, 1833."
"To the President and Trustees of the Rensselaer School:"
"Gentlemen: Sufficient provision for the support of said school not being offered to its location at Greenbush, according to the first section of the amendment of April 26, 1832, I feel bound in duty to object to its removal to Greenbush."
"But under present circumstances I cheerfully consent to a removal to the Van der Heyden mansion, or to any other suitable building near the central part of said city of Troy."
"Respectfully your humble servant,"
"S. V. Rensselaer."
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, concluded ...
Among the by-laws passed at this meeting was one by which the name of the school was changed to the "Rensselaer Institute," which was to include an "experimental and classical department".
At the same time the scholastic year was divided into two terms instead of three, the winter term, sixteen weeks in duration, to commence on the third Wednesday in November; and the summer term, of twenty-four weeks, to begin on the last Wednesday in April.
Each term was divided into sub-terms of four weeks each.
It was also resolved to remove to the Van der Heyden mansion on or before April, 1834.
This building was selected on account of its size and convenience of access.
It was situated on the southwest corner of Eighth and Grand Division streets, and the removal took place in April, 1834.
During the occupation of the Old Bank Place the number of students at any one time had never exceeded and was generally less than twenty-five.
The number of teachers was regulated by the number of students, one being assigned to each section of five or six.
The triennial catalogue for 1832-3-4 gives a list of twenty-five instructors who had already been connected with the school.
The small number of students was partly due to the standard required for entrance to the regular course; at one time twelve of the twenty-five present were graduates or members of colleges.
In the notices for the ninth annual course, 1832-3, during the time that the change of location was being considered, it is remarked: "None are received but those whose minds are disciplined to habits of study."
"Hence it is that the patron has already advanced over twenty-two thousand dollars in support of the school for eight years."
"To improve the plan of education is his object; not to establish a school at any particular location."
"Therefore patronage is not asked."
"These terms are printed, not for the benefit of the school, but for the benefit of those who wish to profit by the improvements made by trials which cost the patron many thousands."
The first clause of the preceding quotation could hardly have referred to the junior members of the school, in the Preparation Branch; as Rule 8 of the by-laws of 1835 reads: "In case of any disobedience of any juniors to orders of teachers, after being particularly called to obey, it shall be the duty of said professor to lay hands on such disobedient student and remove him from the premises, or confine him (in such a manner as to cause no personal injury) for a time not exceeding two hours."
"But no beating or flagellation shall in any case be permitted at the Institute."
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER V.
THE NAME CHANGED TO RENSSELAER INSTITUTE. REMOVAL TO THE VAN DER HEYDEN MANSION, concluded ...
Among the by-laws passed at this meeting was one by which the name of the school was changed to the "Rensselaer Institute," which was to include an "experimental and classical department".
At the same time the scholastic year was divided into two terms instead of three, the winter term, sixteen weeks in duration, to commence on the third Wednesday in November; and the summer term, of twenty-four weeks, to begin on the last Wednesday in April.
Each term was divided into sub-terms of four weeks each.
It was also resolved to remove to the Van der Heyden mansion on or before April, 1834.
This building was selected on account of its size and convenience of access.
It was situated on the southwest corner of Eighth and Grand Division streets, and the removal took place in April, 1834.
During the occupation of the Old Bank Place the number of students at any one time had never exceeded and was generally less than twenty-five.
The number of teachers was regulated by the number of students, one being assigned to each section of five or six.
The triennial catalogue for 1832-3-4 gives a list of twenty-five instructors who had already been connected with the school.
The small number of students was partly due to the standard required for entrance to the regular course; at one time twelve of the twenty-five present were graduates or members of colleges.
In the notices for the ninth annual course, 1832-3, during the time that the change of location was being considered, it is remarked: "None are received but those whose minds are disciplined to habits of study."
"Hence it is that the patron has already advanced over twenty-two thousand dollars in support of the school for eight years."
"To improve the plan of education is his object; not to establish a school at any particular location."
"Therefore patronage is not asked."
"These terms are printed, not for the benefit of the school, but for the benefit of those who wish to profit by the improvements made by trials which cost the patron many thousands."
The first clause of the preceding quotation could hardly have referred to the junior members of the school, in the Preparation Branch; as Rule 8 of the by-laws of 1835 reads: "In case of any disobedience of any juniors to orders of teachers, after being particularly called to obey, it shall be the duty of said professor to lay hands on such disobedient student and remove him from the premises, or confine him (in such a manner as to cause no personal injury) for a time not exceeding two hours."
"But no beating or flagellation shall in any case be permitted at the Institute."
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING.
The preceding pages show that the original intention of the founder was to establish a school for the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and that his object more particularly was to disseminate among farmers, mechanics and the poorer classes generally information in relation to the application of scientific principles to their various occupations which would enable them to improve their material condition.
At the same time the management of the institution was of too broadminded a character to permit its benefits to be confined to any particular branch of practical science, and, although many of those who had up to this time been graduated afterward became eminent in various departments of pure and applied science, the renown of the school is principally due to the work of its alumni in the field of engineering — a course in which was about to be added to the curriculum.
No school of civil as distinguished from military engineering had yet been established in any English speaking country, although on the continent of Europe a number of technical institutions had been founded, most of which were maintained partly or wholly at the expense of the state.
The Ecole des Fonts et Chausses was established in France as early as 1747, though it did not become of importance as a school for engineers until a much later period, and the Konigliche Sachsische Bergakademie (Freiberg) was founded in 1765.
Among other continental technical schools of early date which afterwards became well known may be mentioned the Ecole Polytechnique (Paris, 1794), a school of general science, having for its principal object the preparation of students for several special government technical institutions, including the School of Bridges and Roads above mentioned; the Polytechnisches Institut (Vienna, 1815), intended for the education of engineers, architects and manufacturers; and the Konigliches Gewerbe Institut (Berlin, 1821), which at the time of its foundation and for twenty-five years thereafter was, as its name indicates, a trade rather than an engineering school.
The Technische Bohmische Standische Lehranstalt (Prague) came into existence in 1806.
Beside these, which depended largely upon government aid, a private institution, the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (Paris, 1829), attained prominence as a school of engineering immediately upon its establishment.
Before 1835 a few other technical schools of less importance, containing trade-school features, had been founded in the German states.
The continental schools of science antedated those of Great Britain.
Among the English schools which scientific instruction was early given may be mentioned University College, London, which was opened in 1828 under the name of the University of London and King's College, London, established by royal charter in 1829.
In the University of London engineering subjects were first taught in 1840; and in the same year a chair of civil engineering and mechanics was established by Queen Victoria in the University of Glasgow.
The School of Engineering in Dublin University (Trinity College) was founded in 1842.
The other well-known British schools of science were established at still later dates.
Among them are Owens College, Manchester (1851); the Department of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh (1868); the Royal Indian Engineering College, London (1871) and Mason College, Birmingham (1875).
In this country the Military Academy at West Point, which was established in 1802, though it was a school in name only until its reorganization after the war of 1812, was the only institution giving an education to which the word engineering could be applied, and it, of course, was a military school.
In fact, at the time of the foundation of Rensselaer School it could scarcely be said that there were any engineers other than military engineers.
The term civil engineer had only recently come into existence.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING.
The preceding pages show that the original intention of the founder was to establish a school for the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and that his object more particularly was to disseminate among farmers, mechanics and the poorer classes generally information in relation to the application of scientific principles to their various occupations which would enable them to improve their material condition.
At the same time the management of the institution was of too broadminded a character to permit its benefits to be confined to any particular branch of practical science, and, although many of those who had up to this time been graduated afterward became eminent in various departments of pure and applied science, the renown of the school is principally due to the work of its alumni in the field of engineering — a course in which was about to be added to the curriculum.
No school of civil as distinguished from military engineering had yet been established in any English speaking country, although on the continent of Europe a number of technical institutions had been founded, most of which were maintained partly or wholly at the expense of the state.
The Ecole des Fonts et Chausses was established in France as early as 1747, though it did not become of importance as a school for engineers until a much later period, and the Konigliche Sachsische Bergakademie (Freiberg) was founded in 1765.
Among other continental technical schools of early date which afterwards became well known may be mentioned the Ecole Polytechnique (Paris, 1794), a school of general science, having for its principal object the preparation of students for several special government technical institutions, including the School of Bridges and Roads above mentioned; the Polytechnisches Institut (Vienna, 1815), intended for the education of engineers, architects and manufacturers; and the Konigliches Gewerbe Institut (Berlin, 1821), which at the time of its foundation and for twenty-five years thereafter was, as its name indicates, a trade rather than an engineering school.
The Technische Bohmische Standische Lehranstalt (Prague) came into existence in 1806.
Beside these, which depended largely upon government aid, a private institution, the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (Paris, 1829), attained prominence as a school of engineering immediately upon its establishment.
Before 1835 a few other technical schools of less importance, containing trade-school features, had been founded in the German states.
The continental schools of science antedated those of Great Britain.
Among the English schools which scientific instruction was early given may be mentioned University College, London, which was opened in 1828 under the name of the University of London and King's College, London, established by royal charter in 1829.
In the University of London engineering subjects were first taught in 1840; and in the same year a chair of civil engineering and mechanics was established by Queen Victoria in the University of Glasgow.
The School of Engineering in Dublin University (Trinity College) was founded in 1842.
The other well-known British schools of science were established at still later dates.
Among them are Owens College, Manchester (1851); the Department of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh (1868); the Royal Indian Engineering College, London (1871) and Mason College, Birmingham (1875).
In this country the Military Academy at West Point, which was established in 1802, though it was a school in name only until its reorganization after the war of 1812, was the only institution giving an education to which the word engineering could be applied, and it, of course, was a military school.
In fact, at the time of the foundation of Rensselaer School it could scarcely be said that there were any engineers other than military engineers.
The term civil engineer had only recently come into existence.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
There were no schools of civil engineering here because, although there had been inventors and constructors of genius before that date, civil engineering had hardly yet been recognized as a profession.
A consideration of the condition of the country and of the state of scientific knowledge as applied to the constructive arts towards the beginning of the century shows why this was the case.
In comparison with the European states, in which the early schools of science above mentioned had been established, the country was new and sparsely settled.
In the year 1800 the total population of the United States was only 5,300,000.
In the same year the state of New York contained 589,000 and New York City only 60,000 inhabitants.
In 1830 the country had 12,866,000 inhabitants, while New York state had 1,919,000 and New York City 203,000.
Troy was a village of 1800 people at the former period, and in 1830 this number had increased to 11,500.
Methods of communication were primitive and travelling was expensive.
No canal of considerable length (and these were the first engineering works of great magnitude to be built) was begun until after the conclusion of the second war with England, that of the Schuylkill Coal and Navigation Company, 108 miles in length, being commenced in 1816 and finished in 1825.
Others in Pennsylvania were commenced about the same time, and both the Erie and Champlain canals were begun in 1817.
By the end of the first quarter of the century about 1400 miles of these waterways had been built; but no steam railroads existed, locomotives not becoming practically successful until about 1830.
The first ones used weighed only three or four tons, although in the years 1836-7 Baldwin of Philadelphia built eighty weighing from nine to twelve tons each.
Steam navigation was in a more forward state: the Clermont, a steamer one hundred and thirty-three feet in length, built by Fulton and Livingston in 1807, having made the trip up the Hudson River from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours.
A steam ferry-boat ran between Jersey City and New York in 1812, and in 1815 there were steamboats running between New York and Providence.
In the year 1830 there were eighty-six steamers on the Hudson River and Long Island Sound.
The first steamship to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, of 350 tons, built at Corlears Hook, N. Y.
The engines, however, were used only eighteen out of the twenty-five days required for the passage from Savannah to Liverpool, and sails had to be depended upon for the remainder of the trip.
It was not until 1838 that the transatlantic voyage was made wholly by steam.
In this year the Sirius, of 700 tons, crossed from Cork to New York in nineteen days, and the Great Western, of 1 340 tons, made the passage from Bristol to New York in fifteen days.
In the early days of the country the small amount of power required for manufacturing purposes was obtained principally from wind and water wheels.
Of the latter, undershot, overshot and breast wheels were employed; and Francis says that until 1844 high-breast wheels were considered the most perfect water-wheels that could be used.
Although Fourneyron had erected his first turbine, in France, in 1827, and Elwood Morris of Pennsylvania had shortly afterwards built and put two of them in operation in this country, other wheels of this type were not used here until about the middle of the century.
Boyden designed his turbine in 1844; and the Manufacturing Companies at Lowell, which had begun to improve the water-power of the Merrimac in 1822, purchased the right to use it in 1849.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
There were no schools of civil engineering here because, although there had been inventors and constructors of genius before that date, civil engineering had hardly yet been recognized as a profession.
A consideration of the condition of the country and of the state of scientific knowledge as applied to the constructive arts towards the beginning of the century shows why this was the case.
In comparison with the European states, in which the early schools of science above mentioned had been established, the country was new and sparsely settled.
In the year 1800 the total population of the United States was only 5,300,000.
In the same year the state of New York contained 589,000 and New York City only 60,000 inhabitants.
In 1830 the country had 12,866,000 inhabitants, while New York state had 1,919,000 and New York City 203,000.
Troy was a village of 1800 people at the former period, and in 1830 this number had increased to 11,500.
Methods of communication were primitive and travelling was expensive.
No canal of considerable length (and these were the first engineering works of great magnitude to be built) was begun until after the conclusion of the second war with England, that of the Schuylkill Coal and Navigation Company, 108 miles in length, being commenced in 1816 and finished in 1825.
Others in Pennsylvania were commenced about the same time, and both the Erie and Champlain canals were begun in 1817.
By the end of the first quarter of the century about 1400 miles of these waterways had been built; but no steam railroads existed, locomotives not becoming practically successful until about 1830.
The first ones used weighed only three or four tons, although in the years 1836-7 Baldwin of Philadelphia built eighty weighing from nine to twelve tons each.
Steam navigation was in a more forward state: the Clermont, a steamer one hundred and thirty-three feet in length, built by Fulton and Livingston in 1807, having made the trip up the Hudson River from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours.
A steam ferry-boat ran between Jersey City and New York in 1812, and in 1815 there were steamboats running between New York and Providence.
In the year 1830 there were eighty-six steamers on the Hudson River and Long Island Sound.
The first steamship to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, of 350 tons, built at Corlears Hook, N. Y.
The engines, however, were used only eighteen out of the twenty-five days required for the passage from Savannah to Liverpool, and sails had to be depended upon for the remainder of the trip.
It was not until 1838 that the transatlantic voyage was made wholly by steam.
In this year the Sirius, of 700 tons, crossed from Cork to New York in nineteen days, and the Great Western, of 1 340 tons, made the passage from Bristol to New York in fifteen days.
In the early days of the country the small amount of power required for manufacturing purposes was obtained principally from wind and water wheels.
Of the latter, undershot, overshot and breast wheels were employed; and Francis says that until 1844 high-breast wheels were considered the most perfect water-wheels that could be used.
Although Fourneyron had erected his first turbine, in France, in 1827, and Elwood Morris of Pennsylvania had shortly afterwards built and put two of them in operation in this country, other wheels of this type were not used here until about the middle of the century.
Boyden designed his turbine in 1844; and the Manufacturing Companies at Lowell, which had begun to improve the water-power of the Merrimac in 1822, purchased the right to use it in 1849.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The practical application, in Great Britain, of the steam-engine to pumping water from mines led to the introduction of the first one of any size ever used in America.
All of its principal parts were imported from England and a mechanic was sent over to erect and run it.
It was put together in 1763 at the Schuyler copper-mine on the Passaic River, a few miles above Newark, N. J.
Frederick Graff says* that in 1803 there were in use in the United States five steam-engines beside the one referred to above; two at the Philadelphia water-works, one just about being started at the Manhattan water-works in New York, one in Boston, one in Roosevelt's saw-mill in New York, and quite a small one used by Oliver Evans to grind plaster of paris, in Philadelphia.
The first steam-engine built in America is said to have been constructed in 1772 by Christopher Colles for a distillery in Philadelphia, but it was very defective.
Those of the Philadelphia water-works were built in 1800 at the Soho Works of Roosevelt, near Newark, N. J.
From this time onward the application of steam as a source of power for manufacturing purposes increased with the demands of the times.
Improvements — dictated by experience, for little was known of the theory — were continually made, and by the middle of the century the various types had assumed practically the proportions used at the present time.
One of the first tunnels built in the United States was on the Allegheny Portage Railroad in Pennsylvania.
It was built in 1831 and was 900 feet long.
The Black Rock tunnel on the Reading Railroad was built in 1836.
It was 1932 feet long.
In 1820 one of the first cast-iron water-mains in the country was laid for the Philadelphia water-works.
Bridges of wood and stone had of course been built almost from the time of settlement of the country.
Some of the former were of long span and reflected the greatest credit upon the genius of their constructors, who, however, had only empiric methods of proportioning the parts.
Palmer, Burr and Wernwag were the most noted builders at the beginning of the century.
The Piscatauqua bridge, built by Palmer, near Portsmouth, N. H., included an arch span 244 feet in length; and his Schuylkill River bridge had two arch spans 150 feet and one 195 feet long.
Between 1804 and 1808 Burr built his Waterford, Trenton and Schenectady bridges, with spans ranging from 150 to 203 feet, and, from 1812 to 1816, the Harrisburgh bridge, with twelve spans of about 210 feet each.
Wernwag built his "Colossus" over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia in 1812.
The span was 340 feet.
Town patented his lattice truss in 1820, and Howe's patent was not taken out until 1840.
The era of iron bridges did not begin until 1840.
Finley had built a number of small suspension bridges of chain cables between 1796 and 1810; and in 1810 Templeman replaced the 160-foot span of Palmer's Essex-Merrimac bridge by one of chain cables.
Paine's memoir on cast-iron bridges was printed in 1803, and Canfield took out the first patent for an iron truss bridge in 1833; but the first iron truss bridge built in this country is believed to be the one erected in 1840 by Trumbull over the Erie Canal at Frankford.*
In the same year Whipple built his first iron bridge.
* Notice of the Earliest Steam-engines used in the United States, by Frederick Graff, in Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1853.
* American Railroad Bridges, by Theodore Cooper, in Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, July, 1889.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The practical application, in Great Britain, of the steam-engine to pumping water from mines led to the introduction of the first one of any size ever used in America.
All of its principal parts were imported from England and a mechanic was sent over to erect and run it.
It was put together in 1763 at the Schuyler copper-mine on the Passaic River, a few miles above Newark, N. J.
Frederick Graff says* that in 1803 there were in use in the United States five steam-engines beside the one referred to above; two at the Philadelphia water-works, one just about being started at the Manhattan water-works in New York, one in Boston, one in Roosevelt's saw-mill in New York, and quite a small one used by Oliver Evans to grind plaster of paris, in Philadelphia.
The first steam-engine built in America is said to have been constructed in 1772 by Christopher Colles for a distillery in Philadelphia, but it was very defective.
Those of the Philadelphia water-works were built in 1800 at the Soho Works of Roosevelt, near Newark, N. J.
From this time onward the application of steam as a source of power for manufacturing purposes increased with the demands of the times.
Improvements — dictated by experience, for little was known of the theory — were continually made, and by the middle of the century the various types had assumed practically the proportions used at the present time.
One of the first tunnels built in the United States was on the Allegheny Portage Railroad in Pennsylvania.
It was built in 1831 and was 900 feet long.
The Black Rock tunnel on the Reading Railroad was built in 1836.
It was 1932 feet long.
In 1820 one of the first cast-iron water-mains in the country was laid for the Philadelphia water-works.
Bridges of wood and stone had of course been built almost from the time of settlement of the country.
Some of the former were of long span and reflected the greatest credit upon the genius of their constructors, who, however, had only empiric methods of proportioning the parts.
Palmer, Burr and Wernwag were the most noted builders at the beginning of the century.
The Piscatauqua bridge, built by Palmer, near Portsmouth, N. H., included an arch span 244 feet in length; and his Schuylkill River bridge had two arch spans 150 feet and one 195 feet long.
Between 1804 and 1808 Burr built his Waterford, Trenton and Schenectady bridges, with spans ranging from 150 to 203 feet, and, from 1812 to 1816, the Harrisburgh bridge, with twelve spans of about 210 feet each.
Wernwag built his "Colossus" over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia in 1812.
The span was 340 feet.
Town patented his lattice truss in 1820, and Howe's patent was not taken out until 1840.
The era of iron bridges did not begin until 1840.
Finley had built a number of small suspension bridges of chain cables between 1796 and 1810; and in 1810 Templeman replaced the 160-foot span of Palmer's Essex-Merrimac bridge by one of chain cables.
Paine's memoir on cast-iron bridges was printed in 1803, and Canfield took out the first patent for an iron truss bridge in 1833; but the first iron truss bridge built in this country is believed to be the one erected in 1840 by Trumbull over the Erie Canal at Frankford.*
In the same year Whipple built his first iron bridge.
* Notice of the Earliest Steam-engines used in the United States, by Frederick Graff, in Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1853.
* American Railroad Bridges, by Theodore Cooper, in Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, July, 1889.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The few historical facts above given serve to indicate the condition of engineering science at the period of the school's history which we are now considering.
Although many of the fundamental principles of applied mechanics were known as well then as now, the development of the science, particularly in its application to structures and machines for the production of useful work, had taken place largely upon empiric lines.
Most of the eminent men to whom this development had been due were self-taught, were mechanics whose results had been obtained by successive experiments and with little knowledge of the resistance of materials or of the principles of the design of engineering constructions as practised to-day.
And if with these conditions there is taken into consideration the comparative smallness of the population and its extended geographical distribution, the wise forethought and liberality of mind displayed by the authorities of the school in establishing at such an early date a department of civil engineering will be thoroughly appreciated.
In the pamphlet, published in 1826, giving the constitution and laws of the school, instruction in land surveying was included among the duties of the Senior Professor, and in the catalogue of officers published in 1828 he was required to lecture on land surveying and civil engineering.
This is the first appearance of the term "civil engineering" in any of the circulars, and no well-defined course in the subject was formulated for several years.
In the "Notices for the Eighth Annual Course", (1831-2), to which reference has before been made, the first sub-term, beginning November 16, was devoted to "Practical Mathematics, including mensuration applied to land surveying, timber and cord-wood measure, excavations, docks, etc.", and the second sub-term, from December 7 to December 28, to "Trigonometry, Navigation and the elements of Civil Engineering".
The fifteenth and sixteenth sub-terms, from September 12 to October 24, were occupied in the "application of Engineering and Natural History to the occurrences of four travelling tours — to Connecticut River, to the Helderberg, to Carbondale coal beds and to New Jersey".
These quotations include all references to the subject; and in the "Notices" for the ninth annual course civil engineering is not specifically mentioned, though this was an octavo circular containing only three printed pages.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The few historical facts above given serve to indicate the condition of engineering science at the period of the school's history which we are now considering.
Although many of the fundamental principles of applied mechanics were known as well then as now, the development of the science, particularly in its application to structures and machines for the production of useful work, had taken place largely upon empiric lines.
Most of the eminent men to whom this development had been due were self-taught, were mechanics whose results had been obtained by successive experiments and with little knowledge of the resistance of materials or of the principles of the design of engineering constructions as practised to-day.
And if with these conditions there is taken into consideration the comparative smallness of the population and its extended geographical distribution, the wise forethought and liberality of mind displayed by the authorities of the school in establishing at such an early date a department of civil engineering will be thoroughly appreciated.
In the pamphlet, published in 1826, giving the constitution and laws of the school, instruction in land surveying was included among the duties of the Senior Professor, and in the catalogue of officers published in 1828 he was required to lecture on land surveying and civil engineering.
This is the first appearance of the term "civil engineering" in any of the circulars, and no well-defined course in the subject was formulated for several years.
In the "Notices for the Eighth Annual Course", (1831-2), to which reference has before been made, the first sub-term, beginning November 16, was devoted to "Practical Mathematics, including mensuration applied to land surveying, timber and cord-wood measure, excavations, docks, etc.", and the second sub-term, from December 7 to December 28, to "Trigonometry, Navigation and the elements of Civil Engineering".
The fifteenth and sixteenth sub-terms, from September 12 to October 24, were occupied in the "application of Engineering and Natural History to the occurrences of four travelling tours — to Connecticut River, to the Helderberg, to Carbondale coal beds and to New Jersey".
These quotations include all references to the subject; and in the "Notices" for the ninth annual course civil engineering is not specifically mentioned, though this was an octavo circular containing only three printed pages.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
In 1833 the curriculum in the experimental department contained "Practical Mathematics, including Surveying, Engineering, Navigation, Latitude and Longitude, etc., from the 3rd Wednesday in November, 12 weeks."
In the original minutes of the board of trustees we find a record of the examinations of fourteen students in surveying and in engineering.
These were held February 11 and 12, 1834.
Up to this time the degree of Bachelor of Arts, A.B. (r.s.), was the only one conferred by
the institution, and although the course in engineering had been gradually developing it had not yet been differentiated from that in general science.
Preparatory to the separation of these two branches the legislature was petitioned to amend the charter of the school.
This was done by an act dated May 9, 1835.
The second section of this law reads as follows: "The said board of trustees shall have the power to establish a department of mathematical arts, for the purpose of giving instruction in engineering and technology, as a branch of said institute; and to receive and apply donations for procuring instruments and other facilities suitable for giving such instruction in a practical manner, and to authorize the president of said institute to confer certificates on students in said department in testimony of their respective qualifications for practical operations in the mathematical arts."
At a meeting of the board of trustees held May 22, 1835, their number was increased, in accordance with a provision of the above-mentioned act, by the addition of the Mayor, Recorder and Alderman of the Fourth Ward of the city of Troy ; and it was resolved that "A department of Mathematical Arts is hereby established as a branch of the Institute for the purpose of giving instruction in Engineering and Technology".
At the same meeting it was decided that the degree of Bachelor of Natural Science, B.N.S., should thereafter be conferred instead of Bachelor of Arts, and that graduates in the department of Mathematical Arts should receive the degree of Civil Engineer.
Also that "no one shall receive the last-mentioned degree until he shall have been regularly disciplined at this school at least two quarters, after being well taught in elementary mathematics here, or elsewhere".
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
In 1833 the curriculum in the experimental department contained "Practical Mathematics, including Surveying, Engineering, Navigation, Latitude and Longitude, etc., from the 3rd Wednesday in November, 12 weeks."
In the original minutes of the board of trustees we find a record of the examinations of fourteen students in surveying and in engineering.
These were held February 11 and 12, 1834.
Up to this time the degree of Bachelor of Arts, A.B. (r.s.), was the only one conferred by
the institution, and although the course in engineering had been gradually developing it had not yet been differentiated from that in general science.
Preparatory to the separation of these two branches the legislature was petitioned to amend the charter of the school.
This was done by an act dated May 9, 1835.
The second section of this law reads as follows: "The said board of trustees shall have the power to establish a department of mathematical arts, for the purpose of giving instruction in engineering and technology, as a branch of said institute; and to receive and apply donations for procuring instruments and other facilities suitable for giving such instruction in a practical manner, and to authorize the president of said institute to confer certificates on students in said department in testimony of their respective qualifications for practical operations in the mathematical arts."
At a meeting of the board of trustees held May 22, 1835, their number was increased, in accordance with a provision of the above-mentioned act, by the addition of the Mayor, Recorder and Alderman of the Fourth Ward of the city of Troy ; and it was resolved that "A department of Mathematical Arts is hereby established as a branch of the Institute for the purpose of giving instruction in Engineering and Technology".
At the same meeting it was decided that the degree of Bachelor of Natural Science, B.N.S., should thereafter be conferred instead of Bachelor of Arts, and that graduates in the department of Mathematical Arts should receive the degree of Civil Engineer.
Also that "no one shall receive the last-mentioned degree until he shall have been regularly disciplined at this school at least two quarters, after being well taught in elementary mathematics here, or elsewhere".
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: HISTORY OF RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
HISTORY RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, continued ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The first class in civil engineering was graduated in 1835.
The first four candidates for the degree were recommended in the following letter from the examiners, dated October 14, 1835:
"To the Revd. E. Nott, D.D., President:"
"We have examined Edward Suffern, William Clement, Jacob Eddy and Amos Westcott as candidates for the degree of Civil Engineer."
"We find them acquainted with the theory of practice."
"But as this is the first class proposed to be graduated, their own honor and the honor of this institution demand great caution in conferring degrees."
"We therefore recommend as follows: that they receive the degrees, but that the diplomas be left with the Secretary until the President shall receive satisfactory certificates that they have reviewed their Text Books (outlines Gregory), that they can read algebraic equations, and have a general knowledge of Perspective generally."
"A. R. Judah, Chairman.
" P. H. Green, " Harvey Warner, examiners.
By this time a complete curriculum in civil engineering had been established.
It was printed in a circular which will be given in full, as it is believed to be the first prospectus of a school of civil engineering ever printed in English.
It is well worth perusal, not only because the curriculum outlined contains much information regarding the most advanced scientific instruction given in this country at that period, but because the concluding paragraphs throw a curious light upon the expenses of students and the general requirements necessary for graduation.
NOTICES OF RENSSELAER INSTITUTE.
Troy, N. Y., October 14, 1835.
[Being the answer to letters of inquiry.]
Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, Patron, with the right to appoint the Annual Board of Examiners.
ACTING FACULTY.
Rev. E. Nott, D.D., President—also President of Union College.
Judge David Buel, Jr., Vice President.
Amos Eaton, Senior Professor, and Professor of Civil Engineering; also holding the Agency and Supervision of the Institute.
Ebenezer Emmons, Junior Professor.
James Hall, Professor of Chemistry and Physiology.
Assistants — Edward Suffern and D. S. Smalley.
Instruction, wholly practical, illustrated by Experiments and Specimens, is given 40 weeks in each year.
Five days in each week the forenoon exercises are from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m.
Winter Session commences the third Wednesday in November, and continues 16 weeks.
During the first 12 weeks, each fornoon is devoted to practical Mathematics, Arithmetical and Geometrical.
This is a most important course for men of business, young and old.
During the last 4 weeks of the Winter Term, extemporaneous Speaking on the subjects of Logic, Rhetoric, Geology, Geography and History, is the forenoon exercise.
Throughout the whole session the afternoon exercises are Composition, and, in fair weather, exercises in various Mathematical Arts.
A course of Lectures on National and Municipal Law, is given by the Senior Professor.
Summer Session commences on the last Wednesday in April, and continues 24 weeks: ending with Commencement.
Students of the Natural Science Department are instructed as follows:
Three weeks, wholly practical Botany, with specimens.
Four weeks, Zoology, including organic remains; and Physiology, including the elements of Organic Chemistry.
Three and a half weeks, Geology and Mineralogy, with specimens.
Three weeks, traveling between Connecticut River and Schoharie Kill, for making collections to be preserved by each student, and exhibited at examinations; also for improving in the knowledge of Natural History and Mathematical Arts.
Ten weeks, Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.
Half a week, preparing for examination and Commencement.
The afternoons of all fair days are devoted to Surveying, Engineering, and various Mathematical Arts — also to Mineralizing, Botanizing, and to collecting and preserving subjects in Zoology.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
CHAPTER VI.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, continued ...
The first class in civil engineering was graduated in 1835.
The first four candidates for the degree were recommended in the following letter from the examiners, dated October 14, 1835:
"To the Revd. E. Nott, D.D., President:"
"We have examined Edward Suffern, William Clement, Jacob Eddy and Amos Westcott as candidates for the degree of Civil Engineer."
"We find them acquainted with the theory of practice."
"But as this is the first class proposed to be graduated, their own honor and the honor of this institution demand great caution in conferring degrees."
"We therefore recommend as follows: that they receive the degrees, but that the diplomas be left with the Secretary until the President shall receive satisfactory certificates that they have reviewed their Text Books (outlines Gregory), that they can read algebraic equations, and have a general knowledge of Perspective generally."
"A. R. Judah, Chairman.
" P. H. Green, " Harvey Warner, examiners.
By this time a complete curriculum in civil engineering had been established.
It was printed in a circular which will be given in full, as it is believed to be the first prospectus of a school of civil engineering ever printed in English.
It is well worth perusal, not only because the curriculum outlined contains much information regarding the most advanced scientific instruction given in this country at that period, but because the concluding paragraphs throw a curious light upon the expenses of students and the general requirements necessary for graduation.
NOTICES OF RENSSELAER INSTITUTE.
Troy, N. Y., October 14, 1835.
[Being the answer to letters of inquiry.]
Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, Patron, with the right to appoint the Annual Board of Examiners.
ACTING FACULTY.
Rev. E. Nott, D.D., President—also President of Union College.
Judge David Buel, Jr., Vice President.
Amos Eaton, Senior Professor, and Professor of Civil Engineering; also holding the Agency and Supervision of the Institute.
Ebenezer Emmons, Junior Professor.
James Hall, Professor of Chemistry and Physiology.
Assistants — Edward Suffern and D. S. Smalley.
Instruction, wholly practical, illustrated by Experiments and Specimens, is given 40 weeks in each year.
Five days in each week the forenoon exercises are from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m.
Winter Session commences the third Wednesday in November, and continues 16 weeks.
During the first 12 weeks, each fornoon is devoted to practical Mathematics, Arithmetical and Geometrical.
This is a most important course for men of business, young and old.
During the last 4 weeks of the Winter Term, extemporaneous Speaking on the subjects of Logic, Rhetoric, Geology, Geography and History, is the forenoon exercise.
Throughout the whole session the afternoon exercises are Composition, and, in fair weather, exercises in various Mathematical Arts.
A course of Lectures on National and Municipal Law, is given by the Senior Professor.
Summer Session commences on the last Wednesday in April, and continues 24 weeks: ending with Commencement.
Students of the Natural Science Department are instructed as follows:
Three weeks, wholly practical Botany, with specimens.
Four weeks, Zoology, including organic remains; and Physiology, including the elements of Organic Chemistry.
Three and a half weeks, Geology and Mineralogy, with specimens.
Three weeks, traveling between Connecticut River and Schoharie Kill, for making collections to be preserved by each student, and exhibited at examinations; also for improving in the knowledge of Natural History and Mathematical Arts.
Ten weeks, Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.
Half a week, preparing for examination and Commencement.
The afternoons of all fair days are devoted to Surveying, Engineering, and various Mathematical Arts — also to Mineralizing, Botanizing, and to collecting and preserving subjects in Zoology.
TO BE CONTINUED ...