Weimar Republic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Weimar Republic was the German state from 1918 to 1933, as it existed as a federal constitutional republic.
The state was officially the German Reich (Deutsches Reich), and was also referred to as the German Republic (Deutsche Republik).
The term "Weimar Republic" refers to the city of Weimar, where the republic's constituent assembly first took place.
In English the country was usually simply called "Germany"; the term "Weimar Republic" did not become common in English until the 1930s.
After four years of hostilities in World War I from 1914 to 1918 with heavy losses, Germany was exhausted and sued for peace under desperate circumstances.
Awareness of imminent defeat sparked revolution, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, German surrender, and proclamation of the Weimar republic on 9 November 1918.
From 1918 to 1923, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism (with contending paramilitaries) as well as contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War.
From 1924 to 1929, the Republic enjoyed relative stability and prosperity.
Those years are sometimes called the Golden Twenties.
The world-wide economic crisis beginning in October 1929 hit Germany particularly hard.
High unemployment led to the collapse of the coalition government and from March 1930 various chancellors ruled through emergency powers granted by the President.
This period ended with Adolf Hitler's appointment as chancellor on 30 January 1933.
Resentment in Germany towards the Treaty of Versailles was strong, especially on the political right where there was great anger towards those who had signed and submitted to the treaty.
The Weimar Republic fulfilled most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, although it never completely met its disarmament requirements and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations (by twice restructuring its debt through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan).
Under the Locarno Treaties, signed in 1925, Germany moved toward normalising relations with its neighbors.
Germany recognised the western borders that had been established through the Versailles Treaty, but its eastern borders remained subject to possible revisions.
In 1926, Germany joined the League of Nations.
From 1930 onwards, President Paul von Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen and General Kurt von Schleicher.
The Great Depression, exacerbated by Brüning's policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment.
On 30 January 1933, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor at the head of a coalition government.
Hitler's Nazi Party held two out of ten cabinet seats.
Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the "éminence grise" who would keep Hitler under control, using his close personal connection to Hindenburg.
These intentions badly underestimated Hitler's political abilities.
By the end of March, the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had used the perceived state of emergency to grant Hitler as Chancellor broad power to act outside parliamentary control, which he used to thwart constitutional governance and civil liberties.
Hitler's seizure of power (Machtergreifung) thus ended the republic.
Democracy collapsed, and the creation of a single-party state began the dictatorship of the Nazi era.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Name and symbols
The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933.
Terminology
Between 1919 and 1933, there was no single name for the new state that gained widespread acceptance, which is the reason why the old name Deutsches Reich was officially retained, although hardly anyone used it during the Weimar period.
To the right of the spectrum, the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model and were appalled to see the honour of the traditional word Reich associated with it.
Zentrum, the Catholic Centre Party, favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat (German People's State), while on the moderate left Chancellor Friedrich Ebert's Social Democratic Party of Germany preferred Deutsche Republik (German Republic).
By the mid-1920s, Deutsche Republik was used by most Germans, but for the anti-democratic right the word Republik was a painful reminder of a government structure that had been imposed by foreign statesmen, along with the relocation of the seat of power to Weimar and the expulsion of Kaiser Wilhelm in the wake of massive national humiliation.
The first recorded mention of the term Republik von Weimar (Republic of Weimar) came during a speech delivered by Adolf Hitler at a National Socialist German Worker's Party rally in Munich on 24 February 1929.
A few weeks later, the term Weimarer Republik was first used again by Hitler in a newspaper article.
Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany.
According to historian Richard J. Evans:
The continued use of the term 'German Empire', Deutsches Reich, by the Weimar Republic ... conjured up an image among educated Germans that resonated far beyond the institutional structures Bismarck created: the successor to the Roman Empire; the vision of God's Empire here on earth; the universality of its claim to suzerainty; and a more prosaic but no less powerful sense, the concept of a German state that would include all German speakers in central Europe — 'one People, one Reich, one Leader', as the Nazi slogan was to put it.
Flag and coat of arms
The old black-red-gold tricolor was named as the national flag in the Weimar Constitution.
The coat of arms incorporated the German Imperial Eagle derived from the coat of arms under the Paulskirche Constitution of 1849.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Name and symbols
The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933.
Terminology
Between 1919 and 1933, there was no single name for the new state that gained widespread acceptance, which is the reason why the old name Deutsches Reich was officially retained, although hardly anyone used it during the Weimar period.
To the right of the spectrum, the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model and were appalled to see the honour of the traditional word Reich associated with it.
Zentrum, the Catholic Centre Party, favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat (German People's State), while on the moderate left Chancellor Friedrich Ebert's Social Democratic Party of Germany preferred Deutsche Republik (German Republic).
By the mid-1920s, Deutsche Republik was used by most Germans, but for the anti-democratic right the word Republik was a painful reminder of a government structure that had been imposed by foreign statesmen, along with the relocation of the seat of power to Weimar and the expulsion of Kaiser Wilhelm in the wake of massive national humiliation.
The first recorded mention of the term Republik von Weimar (Republic of Weimar) came during a speech delivered by Adolf Hitler at a National Socialist German Worker's Party rally in Munich on 24 February 1929.
A few weeks later, the term Weimarer Republik was first used again by Hitler in a newspaper article.
Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany.
According to historian Richard J. Evans:
The continued use of the term 'German Empire', Deutsches Reich, by the Weimar Republic ... conjured up an image among educated Germans that resonated far beyond the institutional structures Bismarck created: the successor to the Roman Empire; the vision of God's Empire here on earth; the universality of its claim to suzerainty; and a more prosaic but no less powerful sense, the concept of a German state that would include all German speakers in central Europe — 'one People, one Reich, one Leader', as the Nazi slogan was to put it.
Flag and coat of arms
The old black-red-gold tricolor was named as the national flag in the Weimar Constitution.
The coat of arms incorporated the German Imperial Eagle derived from the coat of arms under the Paulskirche Constitution of 1849.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Armed forces
After the dissolution of the army of the former German Empire, known as the Deutsches Heer (simply "German Army") or the Reichsheer ("Army of the Realm") in 1918; Germany's military forces consisted of irregular paramilitaries, namely the various right-wing Freikorps ("Free Corps") groups composed of veterans from the war.
The Freikorps units were formally disbanded in 1920 (although continued to exist in underground groups), and on 1 January 1921, a new Reichswehr (figuratively; Defence of the realm) was created.
The Treaty of Versailles limited the size of the Reichswehr to 100,000 soldiers (consisting of seven infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions), 10 armoured cars and a navy (the Reichsmarine) restricted to 36 ships in active service.
No aircraft of any kind was allowed.
The main advantage of this limitation, however, was that the Reichswehr could afford to pick the best recruits for service.
However, with inefficient armour and no air support, the Reichswehr would have had limited combat abilities.
Privates were mainly recruited from the countryside, as it was believed that young men from cities were prone to socialist behaviour, which would fray the loyalty of the privates to their conservative officers.
Although technically in service of the republic, the army was predominantly officered by conservative reactionaries who were sympathetic to right-wing organisations.
Hans von Seeckt, the head of the Reichswehr, declared that the army was not loyal to the democratic republic, and would only defend it if it were in their interests.
During the Kapp Putsch for example, the army refused to fire upon the rebels.
The vulgar and turbulent SA was the Reichswehr's main opponent throughout its existence, openly seeking to absorb the army, and the army fired at them during the Beerhall Putsch.
With the ascendance of the SS, the Reichswehr took a softer line about the Nazis, as the SS presented itself as elitist, respectable, orderly, and busy reforming and dominating the police rather than the army.
In 1935, two years after Adolf Hitler's rise to power, the Reichswehr was renamed the Wehrmacht {"Defense Force"}.
The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of the Nazi regime, which consisted of the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and the Luftwaffe (air force).
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Armed forces
After the dissolution of the army of the former German Empire, known as the Deutsches Heer (simply "German Army") or the Reichsheer ("Army of the Realm") in 1918; Germany's military forces consisted of irregular paramilitaries, namely the various right-wing Freikorps ("Free Corps") groups composed of veterans from the war.
The Freikorps units were formally disbanded in 1920 (although continued to exist in underground groups), and on 1 January 1921, a new Reichswehr (figuratively; Defence of the realm) was created.
The Treaty of Versailles limited the size of the Reichswehr to 100,000 soldiers (consisting of seven infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions), 10 armoured cars and a navy (the Reichsmarine) restricted to 36 ships in active service.
No aircraft of any kind was allowed.
The main advantage of this limitation, however, was that the Reichswehr could afford to pick the best recruits for service.
However, with inefficient armour and no air support, the Reichswehr would have had limited combat abilities.
Privates were mainly recruited from the countryside, as it was believed that young men from cities were prone to socialist behaviour, which would fray the loyalty of the privates to their conservative officers.
Although technically in service of the republic, the army was predominantly officered by conservative reactionaries who were sympathetic to right-wing organisations.
Hans von Seeckt, the head of the Reichswehr, declared that the army was not loyal to the democratic republic, and would only defend it if it were in their interests.
During the Kapp Putsch for example, the army refused to fire upon the rebels.
The vulgar and turbulent SA was the Reichswehr's main opponent throughout its existence, openly seeking to absorb the army, and the army fired at them during the Beerhall Putsch.
With the ascendance of the SS, the Reichswehr took a softer line about the Nazis, as the SS presented itself as elitist, respectable, orderly, and busy reforming and dominating the police rather than the army.
In 1935, two years after Adolf Hitler's rise to power, the Reichswehr was renamed the Wehrmacht {"Defense Force"}.
The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of the Nazi regime, which consisted of the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and the Luftwaffe (air force).
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Background
Hostilities in World War I took place between 1914 and 11 November 1918, involved mobilization of 70 million military personnel and resulted in over 20 million military and civilian deaths (exclusive of fatalities from the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, which accounted for millions more) making it one of the largest and deadliest wars in history.
After four years of war on multiple fronts in Europe and around the world, the Allied offensive began in August 1918, and the position of Germany and the Central Powers deteriorated, leading them to sue for peace.
Initial offers were rejected by the Allied Powers, and Germany's position became more desperate.
Awareness of impending military defeat sparked the German Revolution, proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender, marking the end of Imperial Germany and the beginning of the Weimar Republic.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Background
Hostilities in World War I took place between 1914 and 11 November 1918, involved mobilization of 70 million military personnel and resulted in over 20 million military and civilian deaths (exclusive of fatalities from the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, which accounted for millions more) making it one of the largest and deadliest wars in history.
After four years of war on multiple fronts in Europe and around the world, the Allied offensive began in August 1918, and the position of Germany and the Central Powers deteriorated, leading them to sue for peace.
Initial offers were rejected by the Allied Powers, and Germany's position became more desperate.
Awareness of impending military defeat sparked the German Revolution, proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender, marking the end of Imperial Germany and the beginning of the Weimar Republic.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919)
In October 1918, the constitution of the German Empire was reformed to give more powers to the elected parliament.
On 29 October, rebellion broke out in Kiel among sailors.
There, sailors, soldiers, and workers began electing Workers' and Soldiers' Councils (Arbeiter und Soldatenräte) modelled after the Soviets of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
The revolution spread throughout Germany, and participants seized military and civil powers in individual cities.
The power takeover was achieved everywhere without loss of life.
At the time, the Socialist movement which represented mostly labourers was split among two major left-wing parties: the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which called for immediate peace negotiations and favoured a soviet-style command economy, and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) also known as "Majority" Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), which supported the war effort and favoured a parliamentary system.
The rebellion caused great fear in the establishment and in the middle classes because of the Soviet-style aspirations of the councils.
To centrist and conservative citizens, the country looked to be on the verge of a communist revolution.
By 7 November, the revolution had reached Munich, resulting in King Ludwig III of Bavaria fleeing.
The MSPD decided to make use of their support at the grassroots and put themselves at the front of the movement, demanding that Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicate.
When he refused, Prince Max of Baden simply announced that he had done so and frantically attempted to establish a regency under another member of the House of Hohenzollern.
Gustav Noske, a self-appointed military expert in the MSPD, was sent to Kiel to prevent any further unrest and took on the task of controlling the mutinous sailors and their supporters in the Kiel barracks.
The sailors and soldiers, inexperienced in matters of revolutionary combat, welcomed him as an experienced politician and allowed him to negotiate a settlement, thus defusing the initial anger of the revolutionaries in uniform.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919)
In October 1918, the constitution of the German Empire was reformed to give more powers to the elected parliament.
On 29 October, rebellion broke out in Kiel among sailors.
There, sailors, soldiers, and workers began electing Workers' and Soldiers' Councils (Arbeiter und Soldatenräte) modelled after the Soviets of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
The revolution spread throughout Germany, and participants seized military and civil powers in individual cities.
The power takeover was achieved everywhere without loss of life.
At the time, the Socialist movement which represented mostly labourers was split among two major left-wing parties: the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which called for immediate peace negotiations and favoured a soviet-style command economy, and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) also known as "Majority" Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), which supported the war effort and favoured a parliamentary system.
The rebellion caused great fear in the establishment and in the middle classes because of the Soviet-style aspirations of the councils.
To centrist and conservative citizens, the country looked to be on the verge of a communist revolution.
By 7 November, the revolution had reached Munich, resulting in King Ludwig III of Bavaria fleeing.
The MSPD decided to make use of their support at the grassroots and put themselves at the front of the movement, demanding that Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicate.
When he refused, Prince Max of Baden simply announced that he had done so and frantically attempted to establish a regency under another member of the House of Hohenzollern.
Gustav Noske, a self-appointed military expert in the MSPD, was sent to Kiel to prevent any further unrest and took on the task of controlling the mutinous sailors and their supporters in the Kiel barracks.
The sailors and soldiers, inexperienced in matters of revolutionary combat, welcomed him as an experienced politician and allowed him to negotiate a settlement, thus defusing the initial anger of the revolutionaries in uniform.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
On 9 November 1918, the "German Republic" was proclaimed by MSPD member Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin, to the fury of Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD, who thought that the question of monarchy or republic should be answered by a national assembly.
Two hours later, a "Free Socialist Republic" was proclaimed, 2 km (1.2 mi) away, at the Berliner Stadtschloss.
The proclamation was issued by Karl Liebknecht, co-leader (with Rosa Luxemburg) of the communist Spartakusbund (Spartacus League), a group of a few hundred supporters of the Russian revolution that had allied itself with the USPD in 1917.
In a legally questionable act, Imperial Chancellor (Reichskanzler) Prince Max of Baden transferred his powers to Friedrich Ebert, who, shattered by the monarchy's fall, reluctantly accepted.
In view of the mass support for more radical reforms among the workers' councils, a coalition government called "Council of the People's Deputies" (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members.
Led by Ebert for the MSPD and Hugo Haase for the USPD it sought to act as a provisional cabinet of ministers.
But the power question was unanswered.
Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the Spartacus League.
On 11 November 1918, an armistice was signed at Compiègne by German representatives.
It effectively ended military operations between the Allies and Germany.
It amounted to German capitulation, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade would continue until complete peace terms were agreed.
From November 1918 to January 1919, Germany was governed by the "Council of the People's Deputies", under the leadership of Ebert and Haase.
The Council issued a large number of decrees that radically shifted German policies.
It introduced the eight-hour workday, domestic labour reform, works councils, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and States) and national health insurance, reinstatement of demobilised workers, protection from arbitrary dismissal with appeal as a right, regulated wage agreement, and universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all types of elections—local and national.
Ebert called for a "National Congress of Councils" (Reichsrätekongress), which took place from 16 to 20 December 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority.
Thus, Ebert was able to institute elections for a provisional National Assembly that would be given the task of writing a democratic constitution for parliamentary government, marginalising the movement that called for a socialist republic.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
On 9 November 1918, the "German Republic" was proclaimed by MSPD member Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin, to the fury of Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD, who thought that the question of monarchy or republic should be answered by a national assembly.
Two hours later, a "Free Socialist Republic" was proclaimed, 2 km (1.2 mi) away, at the Berliner Stadtschloss.
The proclamation was issued by Karl Liebknecht, co-leader (with Rosa Luxemburg) of the communist Spartakusbund (Spartacus League), a group of a few hundred supporters of the Russian revolution that had allied itself with the USPD in 1917.
In a legally questionable act, Imperial Chancellor (Reichskanzler) Prince Max of Baden transferred his powers to Friedrich Ebert, who, shattered by the monarchy's fall, reluctantly accepted.
In view of the mass support for more radical reforms among the workers' councils, a coalition government called "Council of the People's Deputies" (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members.
Led by Ebert for the MSPD and Hugo Haase for the USPD it sought to act as a provisional cabinet of ministers.
But the power question was unanswered.
Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the Spartacus League.
On 11 November 1918, an armistice was signed at Compiègne by German representatives.
It effectively ended military operations between the Allies and Germany.
It amounted to German capitulation, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade would continue until complete peace terms were agreed.
From November 1918 to January 1919, Germany was governed by the "Council of the People's Deputies", under the leadership of Ebert and Haase.
The Council issued a large number of decrees that radically shifted German policies.
It introduced the eight-hour workday, domestic labour reform, works councils, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and States) and national health insurance, reinstatement of demobilised workers, protection from arbitrary dismissal with appeal as a right, regulated wage agreement, and universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all types of elections—local and national.
Ebert called for a "National Congress of Councils" (Reichsrätekongress), which took place from 16 to 20 December 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority.
Thus, Ebert was able to institute elections for a provisional National Assembly that would be given the task of writing a democratic constitution for parliamentary government, marginalising the movement that called for a socialist republic.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
To ensure his fledgling government maintained control over the country, Ebert made an agreement with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General Wilhelm Groener.
The 'Ebert–Groener pact' stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the army so long as the army swore to protect the state.
On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was thought contrary to working-class interests by left wing social democrats and communists, and was also opposed by the far right who believed democracy would make Germany weaker.
The new Reichswehr armed forces, limited by the Treaty of Versailles to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 sailors, remained fully under the control of the German officer class, despite their nominal re-organisation.
The Executive Council of the Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils, a coalition that included Majority Socialists, Independent Socialists, workers, and soldiers, implemented a programme of progressive social change, introducing reforms such as the eight-hour workday, the releasing of political prisoners, the abolition of press censorship, increases in workers’ old-age, sick and unemployment benefits, and the bestowing upon labour the unrestricted right to organise into unions.
A number of other reforms were carried out in Germany during the revolutionary period.
It was made harder for estates to sack workers and prevent them from leaving when they wanted to; under the Provisional Act for Agricultural Labour of 23 November 1918 the normal period of notice for management, and for most resident labourers, was set at six weeks.
In addition, a supplementary directive of December 1918 specified that female (and child) workers were entitled to a fifteen-minute break if they worked between four and six hours, thirty minutes for workdays lasting six to eight hours, and one hour for longer days.
A decree on 23 December 1918 established committees (composed of workers' representatives "in their relation to the employer") to safeguard the rights of workers.
The right to bargain collectively was also established, while it was made obligatory "to elect workers’ committees on estates and establish conciliation committees".
A decree on 3 February 1919 removed the right of employers to acquire exemption for domestic servants and agricultural workers.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
To ensure his fledgling government maintained control over the country, Ebert made an agreement with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General Wilhelm Groener.
The 'Ebert–Groener pact' stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the army so long as the army swore to protect the state.
On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was thought contrary to working-class interests by left wing social democrats and communists, and was also opposed by the far right who believed democracy would make Germany weaker.
The new Reichswehr armed forces, limited by the Treaty of Versailles to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 sailors, remained fully under the control of the German officer class, despite their nominal re-organisation.
The Executive Council of the Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils, a coalition that included Majority Socialists, Independent Socialists, workers, and soldiers, implemented a programme of progressive social change, introducing reforms such as the eight-hour workday, the releasing of political prisoners, the abolition of press censorship, increases in workers’ old-age, sick and unemployment benefits, and the bestowing upon labour the unrestricted right to organise into unions.
A number of other reforms were carried out in Germany during the revolutionary period.
It was made harder for estates to sack workers and prevent them from leaving when they wanted to; under the Provisional Act for Agricultural Labour of 23 November 1918 the normal period of notice for management, and for most resident labourers, was set at six weeks.
In addition, a supplementary directive of December 1918 specified that female (and child) workers were entitled to a fifteen-minute break if they worked between four and six hours, thirty minutes for workdays lasting six to eight hours, and one hour for longer days.
A decree on 23 December 1918 established committees (composed of workers' representatives "in their relation to the employer") to safeguard the rights of workers.
The right to bargain collectively was also established, while it was made obligatory "to elect workers’ committees on estates and establish conciliation committees".
A decree on 3 February 1919 removed the right of employers to acquire exemption for domestic servants and agricultural workers.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
With the Verordnung of 3 February 1919, the Ebert government reintroduced the original structure of the health insurance boards according to an 1883 law, with one-third employers and two-thirds members (i.e. workers).
From 28 June 1919 health insurance committees became elected by workers themselves.
The Provisional Order of January 1919 concerning agricultural labour conditions fixed 2,900 hours as a maximum per year, distributed as eight, ten, and eleven hours per day in four-monthly periods.
A code of January 1919 bestowed upon land-labourers the same legal rights that industrial workers enjoyed, while a bill ratified that same year obliged the States to set up agricultural settlement associations which, as noted by Volker Berghahn, "were endowed with the priority right of purchase of farms beyond a specified size".
In addition, undemocratic public institutions were abolished, involving, as noted by one writer, the disappearance "of the Prussian Upper House, the former Prussian Lower House that had been elected in accordance with the three-class suffrage, and the municipal councils that were also elected on the class vote".
A rift developed between the MSPD and USPD after Ebert called upon the OHL (Supreme Army Command) for troops to put down a mutiny by a leftist military unit on 23/24 December 1918, in which members of the Volksmarinedivision (People's Army Division) had captured the city's garrison commander Otto Wels and occupied the Reichskanzlei (Reich Chancellery) where the "Council of the People's Deputies" was situated.
The ensuing street fighting left several dead and injured on both sides.
The USPD leaders were outraged by what they believed was treachery by the MSPD, which, in their view, had joined with the anti-communist military to suppress the revolution.
Thus, the USPD left the "Council of the People's Deputies" after only seven weeks.
On 30 December, the split deepened when the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the left wing of the USPD and the Spartacus League group.
In January, the Spartacus League and others in the streets of Berlin made more armed attempts to establish communism, known as the Spartacist uprising.
Those attempts were put down by paramilitary Freikorps units consisting of volunteer soldiers.
Bloody street fights culminated in the beating and shooting deaths of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht after their arrests on 15 January.
With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular among radical leftists.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), continued ...
With the Verordnung of 3 February 1919, the Ebert government reintroduced the original structure of the health insurance boards according to an 1883 law, with one-third employers and two-thirds members (i.e. workers).
From 28 June 1919 health insurance committees became elected by workers themselves.
The Provisional Order of January 1919 concerning agricultural labour conditions fixed 2,900 hours as a maximum per year, distributed as eight, ten, and eleven hours per day in four-monthly periods.
A code of January 1919 bestowed upon land-labourers the same legal rights that industrial workers enjoyed, while a bill ratified that same year obliged the States to set up agricultural settlement associations which, as noted by Volker Berghahn, "were endowed with the priority right of purchase of farms beyond a specified size".
In addition, undemocratic public institutions were abolished, involving, as noted by one writer, the disappearance "of the Prussian Upper House, the former Prussian Lower House that had been elected in accordance with the three-class suffrage, and the municipal councils that were also elected on the class vote".
A rift developed between the MSPD and USPD after Ebert called upon the OHL (Supreme Army Command) for troops to put down a mutiny by a leftist military unit on 23/24 December 1918, in which members of the Volksmarinedivision (People's Army Division) had captured the city's garrison commander Otto Wels and occupied the Reichskanzlei (Reich Chancellery) where the "Council of the People's Deputies" was situated.
The ensuing street fighting left several dead and injured on both sides.
The USPD leaders were outraged by what they believed was treachery by the MSPD, which, in their view, had joined with the anti-communist military to suppress the revolution.
Thus, the USPD left the "Council of the People's Deputies" after only seven weeks.
On 30 December, the split deepened when the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the left wing of the USPD and the Spartacus League group.
In January, the Spartacus League and others in the streets of Berlin made more armed attempts to establish communism, known as the Spartacist uprising.
Those attempts were put down by paramilitary Freikorps units consisting of volunteer soldiers.
Bloody street fights culminated in the beating and shooting deaths of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht after their arrests on 15 January.
With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular among radical leftists.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), concluded ...
The National Assembly elections took place on 19 January 1919.
In this time, the radical left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organised, leading to a solid majority of seats for the MSPD moderate forces.
To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name.
The Weimar Constitution created a republic under a parliamentary republic system with the Reichstag elected by proportional representation.
The democratic parties obtained a solid 80% of the vote.
During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued.
A Soviet republic was declared in Munich, but was quickly put down by Freikorps and remnants of the regular army.
The fall of the Munich Soviet Republic to these units, many of which were situated on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far-right movements and organisations in Bavaria, including Organisation Consul, the Nazi Party, and societies of exiled Russian Monarchists.
Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country.
In eastern provinces, forces loyal to Germany's fallen Monarchy fought the republic, while militias of Polish nationalists fought for independence: Great Poland Uprising in Provinz Posen and three Silesian uprisings in Upper Silesia.
Germany lost the war because the country ran out of allies and its economic resources were running out; support among the population began to crumble in 1916 and by mid-1918 there was support for the war only among the die-hard monarchists and conservatives.
The decisive blow came with the entry of the United States into the conflict, which made its vast industrial resources available to the beleaguered Allies.
By late summer 1918 the German reserves were exhausted while fresh American troops arrived in France at the rate of 10,000 a day.
Retreat and defeat were at hand, and the Army told the Kaiser to abdicate for it could no longer support him.
Although in retreat, the German armies were still on French and Belgian territory when the war ended on 11 November.
Ludendorf and Hindenburg soon proclaimed that it was the defeatism of the civilian population that had made defeat inevitable.
The die-hard nationalists then blamed the civilians for betraying the army and the surrender.
This was the "stab-in-the-back myth" that was unceasingly propagated by the right in the 1920s and ensured that many monarchists and conservatives would refuse to support the government of what they called the "November criminals".
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
November Revolution (1918–1919), concluded ...
The National Assembly elections took place on 19 January 1919.
In this time, the radical left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organised, leading to a solid majority of seats for the MSPD moderate forces.
To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name.
The Weimar Constitution created a republic under a parliamentary republic system with the Reichstag elected by proportional representation.
The democratic parties obtained a solid 80% of the vote.
During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued.
A Soviet republic was declared in Munich, but was quickly put down by Freikorps and remnants of the regular army.
The fall of the Munich Soviet Republic to these units, many of which were situated on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far-right movements and organisations in Bavaria, including Organisation Consul, the Nazi Party, and societies of exiled Russian Monarchists.
Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country.
In eastern provinces, forces loyal to Germany's fallen Monarchy fought the republic, while militias of Polish nationalists fought for independence: Great Poland Uprising in Provinz Posen and three Silesian uprisings in Upper Silesia.
Germany lost the war because the country ran out of allies and its economic resources were running out; support among the population began to crumble in 1916 and by mid-1918 there was support for the war only among the die-hard monarchists and conservatives.
The decisive blow came with the entry of the United States into the conflict, which made its vast industrial resources available to the beleaguered Allies.
By late summer 1918 the German reserves were exhausted while fresh American troops arrived in France at the rate of 10,000 a day.
Retreat and defeat were at hand, and the Army told the Kaiser to abdicate for it could no longer support him.
Although in retreat, the German armies were still on French and Belgian territory when the war ended on 11 November.
Ludendorf and Hindenburg soon proclaimed that it was the defeatism of the civilian population that had made defeat inevitable.
The die-hard nationalists then blamed the civilians for betraying the army and the surrender.
This was the "stab-in-the-back myth" that was unceasingly propagated by the right in the 1920s and ensured that many monarchists and conservatives would refuse to support the government of what they called the "November criminals".
TO BE CONTINUED ...
Re: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Weimar Republic, continued ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Years of crisis (1919–1923)
Burden from the First World War
In the four years following the First World War, the situation for German civilians remained dire.
The severe food shortages improved little to none up until 1923.
Many German civilians expected life to return to prewar normality following the removal of the naval blockade in June 1919.
Instead, the struggles induced by the First World War persisted for the decade following.
Throughout the war German officials made rash decisions to combat the growing hunger of the nation, most of which were highly unsuccessful.
Examples include the nationwide pig slaughter, Schweinemord, in 1915.
The rationale behind exterminating the population of swine was to decrease the use of potatoes and turnips for animal consumption, transitioning all foods toward human consumption.
In 1922, now three years after the German signing of the Treaty of Versailles, meat consumption in the country had not increased since the war era.
22 kg per person per year was still less than half of the 52 kg statistic in 1913, before the onset of the war.
German citizens felt the food shortages even deeper than during the war, because the reality of the nation contrasted so starkly with their expectations.
The burdens of the First World War lightened little in the immediate years following, and with the onset of the Treaty of Versailles, coupled by mass inflation, Germany still remained in a crisis.
The continuity of pain showed the Weimar authority in a negative light, and public opinion was one of the main sources behind its failure.
TO BE CONTINUED ...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Years of crisis (1919–1923)
Burden from the First World War
In the four years following the First World War, the situation for German civilians remained dire.
The severe food shortages improved little to none up until 1923.
Many German civilians expected life to return to prewar normality following the removal of the naval blockade in June 1919.
Instead, the struggles induced by the First World War persisted for the decade following.
Throughout the war German officials made rash decisions to combat the growing hunger of the nation, most of which were highly unsuccessful.
Examples include the nationwide pig slaughter, Schweinemord, in 1915.
The rationale behind exterminating the population of swine was to decrease the use of potatoes and turnips for animal consumption, transitioning all foods toward human consumption.
In 1922, now three years after the German signing of the Treaty of Versailles, meat consumption in the country had not increased since the war era.
22 kg per person per year was still less than half of the 52 kg statistic in 1913, before the onset of the war.
German citizens felt the food shortages even deeper than during the war, because the reality of the nation contrasted so starkly with their expectations.
The burdens of the First World War lightened little in the immediate years following, and with the onset of the Treaty of Versailles, coupled by mass inflation, Germany still remained in a crisis.
The continuity of pain showed the Weimar authority in a negative light, and public opinion was one of the main sources behind its failure.
TO BE CONTINUED ...